Bridging the Realms of Mortals and Deities
Hmong Spirit Intermediaries and their Numinous Powers

by Victoria Vorreiter
September 2021

Paj Zeb Xyooj, Master White Hmong Shaman, Txiv Neeb
Ban Nam La, Luang Nam Tha, Laos

The Hmong, one of the principal indigenous groups inhabiting the Golden Quadrangle, have developed an astonishingly rich culture over the millennia as they migrated from their source in northeastern China moving from mountain to mountain along China’s great rivers. First settling in the highlands of what is now known as Henan, Hubei, and Hunan Provinces, the Hmong, identified as the Miao in China, advanced to Guizhou, where the majority continues to live, and on to the Himalayan foothills that span Southeast Asia—Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. In the last century, through circumstances of cataclysmic local and global events, the Hmong diaspora has expanded throughout the world, as far as France, Australia, French Guiana, Argentina, Canada, and prominently the United States.

Settling in mountains marked by deep valleys, a good source of water, and dense forests, the Hmong are an agrarian people, working the land with traditional swidden techniques along precipitous slopes, while supplementing their diet with the domestic animals they raise and wild animals they track. In such rugged, isolated terrain, they have necessarily developed a strong sense of self-sufficiency, resourcefulness, and perseverance in order to survive. The Hmong have also effectively maintained their ancestral heritage and individuality.

The Hmong of Southeast Asia are composed of numerous groups and subgroups, speaking a range of regional languages. The four major dialects correspond to the largest of these groups, so named by the primary color and design of their garments—the White Hmong, Hmoob Dawb (Hmong Der); Blue or Green Hmong, Hmoob Ntsuab (Hmong Njoua); Striped Hmong, Hmoob Txaij (Hmong Tsai); and Black Hmong, Hmoob Dub (Hmong Dou). Despite such diversity of vernacular and customs, the Hmong find commonality in their concept of the universe and their complex, all-encompassing spiritual doctrine that, along with its devotional practices, is sophisticated and vast and contains multitudes.

Hmong Secular Music

The Hmong have developed a magnificent repertory of secular music that speaks to the body, mind, and heart of men, women, and children as it marks the cycles of their lives. Every possible emotion or experience in the gamut of our human condition can be conveyed through kwv tshiaj (keu tzia), ballads created by Hmong ancestors and passed down through the generations. Given that Hmong is a tonal language with a complex phonology based on eight tones, it displays all the qualities found in music: intonation, cadence, tempo, and modulation. It is not surprising then that vocal music is considered a lyrical extension of speech.

Ntxhw Zeb Haam, Blue Hmong Shaman, Sings Many Styles of Kwv Txhiaj
Ban Khun Huay Mae Pao, Chiang Rai, Thailand

All melodic Hmong instruments—mouth harp, leaf, fiddle, flutes, and reeds—attempt to follow this principle and are expressly played to communicate meaning through musical tones that replicate the patterns, contours, and sensibility of speech to an undeniable degree. In truth, Hmong string and wind instruments are able to “sing” through a secret, surrogate language.

Iab Lis
Mouth Harp, Ncas
Ban Ka Lae, Thailand

Tswb Xyooj
Leaf, Nplong
Ban Ka Lae, Thailand

Nyiaj Pov Lauj
Fiddle, Nkauj Laus Ncas
Ban Than Thong, Thailand

Nyiaj Huas Lis
Side Flute, Raj Ntsaws
Ban Sayua, Luang Nam Tha Laos

Tsav Tuam Thoj
End- blown Flute, Raj Pum Liv
Ban Khun Chang Khian, Thailand

Nom Tsheej Lis
Reed Pipe, Raj Nplaim
Ban Ka Lae, Thailand

Hmong Cosmology

The Hmong believe the universe is composed of two distinct, yet complementary realms. The physical world of natural phenomena, Yaj Ceeb (Yang Cheng), is seen and overseen by humans, tib neeg (ti neng). The supernatural world, Yeeb Ceeb (Yeng Cheng), is inhabited by a vast pantheon of invisible beings.

This animist worldview recognizes the primordial creators, immortal deities, faithful guardians, and benevolent and malevolent spirits that orchestrate, literally ‘animate,’ all that plays out in the visible plane of mortals. There also are ancestor spirits, from the first forefathers to those recently passed, who are dynamic and ever-present, guiding and guarding every member of the household. Moreover, every entity in nature, insentient and sentient (mountains, rivers, forests, fields, sky, and all living creatures), every area important to social life (the village, home, altar, hearth, central post, animal compound, and field), and every special object, ritual tool, and musical instrument possesses a soul. These are equal, interchangeable, and able to transform into other souls. .

The dual spheres of Yaj Ceeb and Yeeb Ceeb are interconnected and mutually dependent to such an extent that what happens in one reverberates in the other. Malady, misfortune, and mayhem in the mortal world are results of an imbalance with the spirit world. Thus, to protect the community and to maintain prosperity a continuum of rites, ceremonies, and festivals are performed in every house and village throughout the year to thwart capricious evil spirits and appease benevolent guardians.

Menacing Totem, Ntxaij
Outside Central Door

Offering, Ntim Txhuv Qe Hu Plig
Inside Central Door

Grandmother Ancestor, Dab Niam
at Village Gate

The Hmong believe that every person is born with three major souls, ntsuj plig (nju pbli), which are supported by nine complementary souls, all of which reside within the body. A baby also receives at birth seven shadows, ntsuj duab (nju dua), which remain outside. Though souls and shadows are independent, they must work together to sustain all vital energies, regulating the breath, blood, heart, brain, liver, kidneys, bones, and reproductive organs.

Ingenious strategies have been developed over time to care for a person’s souls in order to maintain health and abundance. To ensure that a person’s souls remain inside the body, the Hmong perform a string-tying ritual, khi hlua (ki hloua), and wear protective rings—necklaces, bracelets, and anklets—made of silver, a precious metal with the magical, restorative power to attract prosperity and dispel misfortune. From these rings hang silver pendants—hefty chains, menacing tweezers, club-shaped dangles representing fangs and claws, and intricately engraved “soul locks,” phiaj xauv (pia sau)—which act as armor, literally as ‘chain mail.’

Additionally, Hmong women fashion their clothing with complex geometric designs made of indigo batik, nkaj (nga), and colorful overlapping embroidered patterns, paj ntaub (pa ndau), which form a maze-like barrier, a protective force field that deflects evil and blocks disease.

Silver Neck Rings, Xauv Ncais
Ritual String, Hlua
Medicinal Pouch, Hnab Tshuaj

Silver Neck Rings, Xauv Ncais With Protective Back Pendant Chains, Solar Discs, Bells, Dangles

Garments Adorned with Paj Ntaub
In a Protective Labyrinth
of Colorful Patterns and Symbols

If, in the end, any or all three major souls have departed forever, a patient’s Book of Life has closed. At this moment of death his three souls travel to their designated locations—one flies immediately to the ancestor world, one remains eternally with the body at the gravesite, and one ascends over thirteen days to the summit of the spirit world, where it will be judged before reincarnating.

Hmong Sacred Music

The division between the two realms of the universe is also clearly defined by distinctive musical timbre, repertoire, and practices appropriate for secular or sacred occasions. Whereas the visible world of mortals, Yaj Ceeb, is animated by the ethereal tones and overtones of melodious instruments that address the human journey, the invisible world of spirits, Yeeb Ceeb, is driven by percussion instruments and very specific chants, invocations, and vocal calls that support human souls during healing and funeral rites.

Shaman Scissors, Txiab Neeb
Ritual Gong, Nruas Neeb

Ring Rattle, Tswb Neeb

Divination Horns, Kuam

The ringing cacophony of metallic percussion instruments (rattles, gongs, and cymbals) and the incessant clicking and pounding of instruments that are struck (buffalo horns, bamboo sticks, and bass drum) are so thunderous they are able to reverberate up to the highest point of the spirit world. The archaic, enigmatic lyrics in sacred chants are understood only by supernatural beings. In essence, Hmong sacred music is the language of the gods.

Ritual music is performed by a variety of specially trained intermediaries. Healers of medicinal plants, kws tshuaj ntsuab (keu choua njoua), and adepts who foil black magic, kws khawv koob (keu ker kong), intone sacred chants and vocalizations. At death, an array of funeral specialists takes charge to attend to the souls—administering last rites, communicating with ancestors and spirits, speaking with the deceased’s souls, and guiding them to their appropriate destinations in the afterworld.

Hmong Shamans – Txiv Neeb

However, in the case of a person who falls ill due to soul loss, it becomes necessary to redress conflicts with spirits in the supernatural world so his physical, mental, and emotional health can be restored. Shamans, txiv neeb (tsi neng), and the Hmong healing ceremony, ua neeb (ua neng), grew from this need.

Hmong shamans are revered by the Hmong as spirit mediums, for they have been specially chosen and guided by shaman spirits in the mystical arts of communicating with supernatural beings, trancing, clairvoyance, and healing. By determining the cause of the malady in both human and spirit worlds, parleying with evil spirits, searching for and delivering the multiple souls back to the patient, and, importantly, restoring confidence in recovery, shamans bring a sense of hope and order.

Shaman Vam Kaim Lis
Ritual Sword, Ntaj Neeb
Shaman Scissors, Txiab Neeb
Ban Than Thong, Chaing Rai, Thailand

Shaman-in-Training Kawm Lauj
Practicing Privately in Home
Ban Than Thong, Chiang Rai, Thailand

Shamanic Training

An apprentice shaman, with a predisposition for the divine and the training of a master shaman mentor and shaman ancestor spirits, embarks on a long, challenging journey that demands rigorous training and a lifetime commitment.

Shamans, male and female, must hone innumerable specialized skills over many years in both mortal and spirit worlds before they are permitted to perform a ua neeb. They must acquire esoteric knowledge of Hmong doctrine. They must learn to use sacred objects and play ritual instruments to communicate with spirits. They must develop vast experience in retrieving souls from distant, dangerous realms. In practical terms, shamans must also memorize the complex and lengthy poetic cantos that animate a healing ceremony. Inadequacy in any of these areas may cause a serious breach with spirits resulting in harm to a patient or a shaman.

Shamans Nplias Xyooj and Yaj Pov Hawj, Wife and Husband, at their Altars
Ban Than Thong, Chiang Saen District, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand

Levels of Shamanic Mastery

When an apprentice has been deemed worthy by his spirit guides, shaman mentor, and other shamans and community members, he is eligible to set up his own altar, thaj neeb thaj yai (tha neng tha yai), and spirit bench, rooj neeb rooj yaig (drong neng drong yai), which symbolizes a black, white, or red winged spirit horse. At the same time, he acquires personal ritual paraphernalia, cwj neeb cwj yaig (cheu neng cheu yai), each object, tool, and instrument endowed with a special purpose and supernatural powers. At last he is ready to perform a complete healing ceremony.

In the White Hmong shamanic canon of Laos and Thailand, there are three fundamental stages of mastery, which are represented by the three different heights of a shaman’s altar. A shaman may, however, achieve higher levels, up to twelve, based on his experience and the approval of his shaman spirits. A shaman is only allowed to perform those specific spiritual tasks that are dictated by his level of expertise. The powers of the most senior shaman, neeb txwj neeb laug (neng tseu neng lau), are immeasurable, allowing him to travel to all thirteen regions of the spirit world in order to undertake the most perilous assignments.

Symbolically, the Hmong shaman altar represents the home of his guardian spirits and thus is situated directly opposite the central door of his home for easy access. The altar table constitutes the ground level, constructed at one of two possible heights depending on a shaman’s rank, while the upper beam represents the sheltering roof. Five white strands of hemp threads and cloth, sab neeb (sha neng), radiate from the altar’s top beam to the house rafter and central door. In effect, the sab neeb forms a “bridge” allowing a shaman to cross into the spirit world and lost souls and benevolent spirits to reach the altar.

Shaman’s Assistants

During healing rites, male assistants—designated as “messengers in Yaj Ceeb”—represent the family in aiding a shaman in all dealings with spirits in the human world. Before the launch of the ua neeb, they arrange the offerings at the altar table, prepare popped rice, make spirit money, and sacrifice ritual animals.

In the course of the shaman’s trance, assistants perform acts that correspond to strategic commands in the ritual timeline as prompted by the shaman. They beat the gong, nruas neeb (droua neng); look after the well-being of the shaman; act as the eyes in the human world for the “unseeing” shaman in the spirit world; protect the patient once his souls have returned by creating a barrier—encircling his body with metallic vibrations, incense, spirit money, and lustral water.

Hmong Healing Ceremony – Ua Neeb Ua Yaig

By chanting lengthy narratives over several hours the Hmong healing ceremony, ua neeb ua yaig (ua neng ua yai), follows in the great tradition of epic poetry practiced by preliterate societies since time immemorial. Like the Ramayana, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Metamorphoses, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, the theme of the Hmong shamanic oral tradition, which continues to this day, revolves around a momentous heroic quest, rife with a perilous journey in exotic locations, prescribed tasks, a formidable undertaking, obstacles and adversity, victory (or, at times, defeat), and a cast of larger-than-life mythic characters, both good and evil.

Shaman Txooj Ntxawg Xyooj, Performs a Healing Ceremony, Ua Neeb
Accompanied by Assistants on Ritual Gong, Nruas Neeb, and Cymbals, Nruas Npuaj
Ban Ka Lae, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand

A full healing ceremony follows an A-B-A sequence. A shaman performs two soul-calling rites, hu plig, in the human world, which appear as bookends to the central trance ceremony, ua neeb, performed in the spirit world. These ritual enactments are constructed in a series of short cantos, lus dhos (lou daw), each composed of numerous verses that are chanted by memory and without stop. Every canto is based on a special theme and purpose and is of equal importance in content and motive to all others in the narrative. While each canto is self-contained, when recited in succession, they become interdependent, driving the rite to its ultimate conclusion.

Dividing the full ua neeb recitation into small, linking cantos—each rooted in cadence, metaphor, themes, and gestures that anticipate upcoming episodes—serves as a powerful mnemonic device. Anchoring verses using this age-old strategy allows a Hmong shaman to chant complex, lengthy narratives by heart.

The themes of the cantos unfold in an established progression, whose narrative moves from calling a patient’s souls, invoking Hmong founding deities, guardians, and mentor spirits, commanding a massive spirit army, surveying the spirit world, warning against dangerous spirits and places, negotiating with evil spirits, directing family members to assist the rite, instructing the souls of sacrificial animals, and restoring the human souls to the invalid so he may heal.

If all souls are returned to a patient intact, there will be a full recovery. If a person has been left weakened by a serious malady or accident, some of his minor souls may have permanently left the body, a state that compromises health without being fatal. However, if any or all of his three major souls have departed forever, the patient’s Book of Life has come to an end and he has died.

A. Opening Soul-Calling Ritual, Hu Plig

During the opening and concluding soul-calling rituals, the hu plig (hou pbli), a shaman, txiv neeb, serves as a go-between in the human world, Yaj Ceeb, as both messenger and interpreter to a patient’s souls, ntsuj plig (nju pbli), that have left the body but remained close to home, implying the illness is minor. Able to pose questions to spirits and souls through sacred recitation and to receive their responses by “reading” divination tools—buffalo horns, kuam (koua), and the bones of sacrificial chickens—the shaman is able to learn the cause of the infirmity and the souls’ condition and attempts to draw the souls back using varied approaches.

The hu plig continues at the threshold of the central door, as the shaman intones a ritual plainsong imploring the lost souls not to travel to dangerous areas of “loss and death” or to reincarnate into the souls of animals. She beseeches them rather to return to the loving, longing family who awaits them with plentiful food, drink, and clothing.

Based on a measured, lyrical line that follows a steady 4/4 beat, there is a wistful, plaintive quality to hu plig. Phrases are chanted in cadenced pairs, employing complementary meter and metaphors, which may be repeated with slight variations. A shaman accompanies these verses with the ever-present but varying beat of her kuam divination horns, which resound in the spirit world as she taps them against the doorframe and clicks them together.

B. Hmong Healing Ceremony, Ua Neeb Ua Yaig

Preparation

When a person’s ntsuj plig have strayed farther afield into the celestial world, Yeeb Ceeb, it becomes necessary for a shaman to perform a lengthy, hazardous soul-retrieval ceremony, ua neeb ua yaig.

Before the trance ceremony begins, preparations must be made. At the central door, the shaman instructs the sacrificial chickens, ncwm qaib (njeu ghai), for they have pledged their souls in exchange for those of the patient—a life for a life—in a binding contract that lasts one year. As she circles a stick of burning incense around the chickens’ heads, she intones ritual verses, informing them of their obligations to protect and embolden the human souls.

Shaman Rhiav Lis Instructs Sacrificial Chickens, Ncwm Qaib
in Exchanging their Souls for the Souls of the Ailing Person
Ban Nam La, Luang Nam Tha Province, Laos

While the assistants prepare offerings for the spirits, fij qhua neeb (fi khoua neng), the shaman attends to his responsibilities at the altar. He first summons all the benevolent spirits, txheeb qhua (tseng khoua), whose support he needs for the success of such a daunting journey. While supplicating the sprits through spoken poetic verses, the shaman provides remuneration, lighting spirit money on top and at the base of the altar.

The shaman next calls her winged spirit horse to come to the altar by creating an onomatopoeic sound that mimics the snorting of a horse, “prwbbb prwsss. . .” (prbbb prbbb. . .), made by blowing air through loosely closed lips and causing them to vibrate together. In like manner, a shaman begins every transitional section of a healing ritual with this distinctive, extended vocalization—to launch the journey, slow down, charge, or advance to the next level of the spirit world.

Finally the shaman casts down and deciphers his divination horns in front of the altar to determine if the spirits are willing to cooperate in the challenging tasks ahead—locating the straying souls, uncovering the spiritual source of illness, brokering the souls’ release, and guarding them on their homeward journey. If all agree, the ua neeb may begin.

Shaman Txiaj Lis Yaj 
Reading Two Divination Horns, Kuam, at Altar
Ban Khun Chang Khian, Chiang Mai, Thailand

Shaman Txiaj Lis Yaj 
Tying on Veil, Phuam Neeb
Ban Khun Chang Khian, Thailand

Soul-Retrieval Ceremony

Only by entering a trance-like state can a shaman travel on his black winged horse through the thirteen supernatural realms to perform the many arduous tasks that are required. To this end the shaman must first cover his face with a ritual cloth, phuam neeb (poua neng), which physically and symbolically obscures him from the human world, while allowing him to travel freely through the supernatural world to interact with spirits. In Hmong tradition the trance experience is not a state of possession in which spirits have power to manipulate a shaman, but rather a divine state, permitting chosen mortals to enter the spirit world with full mental and physical authority.

During the ua neeb, the pace of the chanting is swift and the style is fervent, pulsing, and unrelenting as a shaman rallies her massive spirit army to explore the supernatural world, filled with danger, risk, and uncertainty. Verses are recited in couplets or tercets, employing a rhythmic cadence that moves towards poetic closure. The narrative, expressly centered on curative themes, is steeped in myth and metaphor from Hmong canon and customs.

The ua neeb is composed of numerous cantos, each clearly identified at beginning and end by verbal and physical markers—vocal calls, fixed phrases, and specific gestures. Without exception, every canto is launched with the prolonged utterance, “prwbbb,” as the shaman leaps three times on the ritual bench to spur on his horse. Phrases marking the end of a canto are authoritative, the two most common being: “It must be like this,” “Ua li no (ua li no),” and, more often, “Lighten the world of Siv Yig” (Shi Yi, the supreme shaman spirit).

A shaman accompanies herself throughout the ua neeb shaking two reverberating metallic ritual tools: two bronze ring rattles, tswb neeb (cheu neng), symbolizing the bells on her spirit horse, and “shaman scissors,” txiab neeb (tsia neng), an iron sistrum with clamorous rattles that represents a fearsome dagger. The percussive reverberations of their incessant jangling invigorate her chants, a powerful sonic display heralding her approach, mission, and bravery.

Accompanied by an assistant beating the gong, the shaman begins the ceremony seated on her spirit bench chanting an obligatory prelude to summon a formidable coalition of guardian, mentor, ancestor, and animal spirits, hu qhua neeb (hou khoua neng), to support her during her quest as guides, counselors, guardians, and all-round aides.

When at last all have assembled, the gong falls silent and the shaman jumps atop her spirit bench—she has now mounted the winged horse that will fly her throughout the spirit world. The shaman presides over all that follows—commanding a massive regiment of “brave” cavalry and “mighty” infantry; seeking information from her advisors, “wise” maidens and “learned” sons; surveying the terrain in numerous locations and levels to discover the souls’ whereabouts; protecting and rallying the “dejected” souls; and determining the cause of soul loss in the mortal world.

Shaman Rhiav Lis Mounts Spirit Horse
Flying throughout Spirit World, Yeeb Ceeb
Ban Nam La, Luang Nam Tha, Laos

Shaman Txooj Ntxawg Xyooj
Flying Higher in Yeeb Ceeb on Spirit Horse
Ban Ka Lae, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand

Only when the souls have been located can negotiations with evil spirits begin, allowing a trade of the souls of the sacrificial chickens for those of the patient. To perform the soul exchange, the shaman communicates with evil spirits through her txiab neeb, “shaman scissors,” throwing them down at the base of the altar as she makes her demands. The spirits’ response is based on the position of the disc rattles when the txiab neeb lands—arranged in unfavorable parallel lines, ////, signifies that the evil spirits do not consent to the terms. The shaman must fly higher to another level of the spirit world to begin again with greater reinforcements.

In a new attempt at negotiations, if the rattles cross, /// \\\, a clear indication of acceptance, the contract is sealed. The human and animal souls can be exchanged and the patient’s souls can finally be delivered to the human world.

Shaman Rhiav Lis Throws Down Spirit Scissors
Cib Yaj Reads Alignment for Spirits’ Decision
Ban Nam La, Luang Nam Tha, Laos

Shaman Sua Lis Chants Final Hu Plig
Calling Souls after Return from Spirit World
Ban Than Thong, Chiang Rai, Thailand

A. Closing Soul-Calling Ceremony, Hu Plig

Though a shaman returns to the human world drained of energy after such a taxing experience, she must immediately take her place at the central door to perform the second, final hu plig. Once again she taps her kuam on the doorframe, inviting the patient’s souls to enter the family compound to a feast of the sacrificial chickens. The shaman then throws down the kuam anew, asking the spirits to confirm the souls’ safe passage.

The closing soul-calling rite is linked thematically and metaphorically to the opening hu plig, though their texts develop in different, be it complementary ways in keeping with the Hmong tradition of pairing rhymes and symbols.

Soul Reading and Consultation, Saib Plig

At the conclusion of the ua neeb, a shaman consults with the ill person’s family as he studies the bones of the two sacrificial chickens. “Inspecting the souls,” saib plig (shai pbli), is the final determinant of the entire soul-retrieval quest, allowing the shaman to diagnose the state of a patient’s souls and, therefore, the efficiency of the healing ceremony and the future of his health.

Shaman Duas Lis Reads Chickens’ Feet
Determining Outcome of Soul-Rescue Mission
Ban Sayua, Luang Nam Tha, Laos

Shaman Rhiav Lis and Grandson, Cas Khoos
Ten Years after his Ua Neeb Ceremony
Ban Nam La, Luang Nam Tha, Laos

Coda

The importance of the Hmong txiv neeb cannot be overstated. To be a shaman is an overwhelming responsibility, one that few people seek. But when ancestral shaman spirits visit a living descendent in the dream world and cause him or her to endure prolonged physical or mental illness, there is little choice but to heed their call to heal himself and others.

Being a spiritual intermediary is not an occasional pastime, but rather a rigorous lifework that, after extensive training, requires a shaman to be on call at all times. Even after death, the soul of a txiv neeb bands with his immortal shaman ancestors to visit and guide future generations of shamans in their dreams and trances. Once a shaman, always a shaman.

The Hmong hold txiv neeb in the highest regard because they alone reside at the liminal interface between the mortal and supernatural worlds, serving as a go-between who possesses the mystical ability to enter a transtemporal state to communicate one to the other.

The Hmong also recognize shamans as the primary living link to all who have gone before. When txiv neeb perform a ua neeb they embody thousands of years of collective wisdom, beliefs, and spirituality. Year after year, Hmong shamans faithfully carry out ritual enactments, creating a highly charged environment propelled by transformative sights, sounds, smells, and gestures. Sharing such a numinous sacrament offers all present a primal and indelible sense of grounding, connecting, and belonging that transcends all earthly experiences.

Shaman Txiaj Lis Yaj (seated, at altar) Performs a Ua Neeb
for Qhua Neeb Yaj (seated, middle)
Relative circles Spirit Money around Sacrificial Chicken
Ban Khun Chang Khian, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand

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